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-hydroxycinnamate, after 8 h, at 160 °C.6 runs[80]ChCl:ZnCl2p
-TSA 2Alkali ligninDegradation of alkali lignin (cleavage ofβ-O
-4)At 130 °C, the content of phenolic hydroxyl species increased. Alakali lignin underwent decarbonylation during treatment.Not reported[84]ChCl:2ureap
-TSA 2Low-grade crude palm oil (LGCPO)Biodiesel production from LGCPO via esterification processThe esterification in 1 wt% DES, 10:1 methanol to LGCPO, at 60 °C in 30 min. <2% free fatty acid (FFA).4 runs[85]2ChCl:citric acid·H2OXylan and xyloseConversion of xylan and xylose to furfural, co-catalyzed by the DES and metal chloridesIn monophasic approach (DES + metal chloride), furfural yield from xylose and xylan were 59 and 54%, respectively. The yields increased to 73.1 and 67% in biphasic system (DES + metal chloride + methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK)).5 runs[71]DEACl 3:3p
-TSA 2Crude palm oilDecreasing the level of FFAs for biodiesel productionThe FFAs were reduced to <1%. The DES: palm oil was 0.75% (wt/wt). Methanol:oil ratio was 8:1 at 60 °C for 30 min. 4 runs[86]ChCl:3p
-TSA 2Acidic crude palm oil (ACPO)Biodiesel production from ACPO (conversion of FFAs in ACPO to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME))The 1:10 molar ratio of Methanol:oil with 0.75 mass ratio of DES:ACPO reduced FFAs to <1% at 60 °C in 30 min. 3 runs[87]ChCl:oxalic acidXylose and xylanFurfural production from xylose and xylan using monophasic (DES) or biphasic (DES + MIBK) systemsAddition of metal chlorides to the DES led to improved furfural yields (14–44%). In the biphasic procedure, the yields from xylose and xylan were, respectively, 60 and 56% in AlCl3·6H2O presence. 5 runs[88]ChCl:p
-TSA 2 (1:0.5 to 1:2)FructoseConversion of fructose to 5-HMF91% 5-HMF yield at 80 °C for 1 h in (ChCl: p-TSA) DES.Not reported[89]ChCl:2ureap
-TsOH 2p
-TsOH) DES with 1:50 molar ratio of oil: methanol in 40 min. Not reported[76]ChCl:4p
-TSA 2Pongamia pinnata
seed oilBiodiesel production from seed oil using either silica support DES (So-DES) and no support DES (Un-DES)Using So-DES at 353 K for 240 min with catalyst loading of 5 (wt%/v), the biodiesel conversion was 89%.p
-TsOH 2Jatropha curcas
cakeHydrothermal liquefaction of de-oiledJatropha curcas
cake to produce biocrude oilDESs formed with HBDs preferentially favored the production of aromatic oil through condensation and hydrolysis of lipids. The highest biocrude yield was achieved by (ChCl: 4KOH) DES (44%).Not reported[6]DEACl 3:0.5p
-TSA 2FructoseDehydration of fructose to 5-HMF85% HMF yield at 80 °C with a 5% feed ratio at 1 h.Not reported[90]ChCl:acetic acidp
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2Glycerol and whole Jatropha curcas seedCo-liquefaction of glycerol and whole Jatropha curcas seed to produce biocrude oilThe biocrude oil yield was 9-wt% with 30-wt% glycerol, 6 wt% moisture, 22 wt% oxygen content and 1:3 molar ratio of the DES.Not reported[7]ATPPB1:3p
-TSA 2Oleic acidEsterification of FFAs with glycerolWith 5 wt% DES and 6:1 molar ratio of glycerol: oleic acid and at 150 °C for 30 min, 95% of FFA is converted to yield 85% mono- and di-glyceride.5 runs[91]ChCl:oxalic acid·2H2OAkebia
Ethanol production from herbal residues ofAkebia
The maximum levels of lignin, xylan and glucan removal with (ChCl: 6glycolic acid) DES at 120 °C.Not reported[73]ChCl:oxalic acidFructoseSynthesis of biofuel ethoxymethyl furfural (EMF) from fructoseUnder microwave irradiation, 92% of fructose was converted to yield 74% EMF in 3 h at 343 K.4 runs[92]ChCl:oxalic acidCellulose and native biomassSelective conversion of cellulose and native biomass into the low molecular weight saccharides The conversion yield and total selectivity of carbohydrate are as high as 85% and 98%, respectively.Not reported[93]3DEACl 3:2oxalic acidSunflower stalkConversion of cellulose to levulinic acid, 5-HMF, furfural and formic acidThe maximum carbon conversion was achieved as 38% at 170 °C in 5 min in microwave reactor. Not reported[94]3ChCl:oxalic acidFurfuralOxidation of furfural to maleic acid and fumaric acid Used H2O2 as the oxidizer at 50 °C. 100% conversion of furfural and the yield of maleic acid and fumaric acid reached 96%. Not reported[12]Taurine:3TfOH 4Isobutane and isobuteneAlkylation of isobutane and isobutene to high-octane alkylate gasolineThe DES in polyethylene glycol-200 (PEG-200) had a high catalytic activity and good recyclability with 83% conversion and 86% C8 selectivity.8 runs[95]ChCl:lactic acid (1:10 to 1:250)Eucalyptus globulus
chipsDelignification ofEucalyptus globulus
chips (increase in cleavage rate ofβ-O
-4)The pupping experiments were performed at 120 °C for 8 h. The DES: biomass molar ratio was 20:1. Not reported[96]ChCl:2malic acidp
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2p
-TSA 2Yellow horn seedBiodiesel production from the yellow horn seed via extraction of oil and conversion of fatty acid methyl esters11 wt% of (TBAB: 2p-TSA) DES exhibited the best catalytic activity with the maximum oil extraction (90%) and fatty acid conversion (97%) at 72 °C for 40 min. 5 runs (TBAB:2p
-TSA)[74]ChCl:urea (1:1 to 1:4)p
-TSA 2p
-TSA 22-phenoxy-1- phenyl ethanol (PPE) (a lignin model compound)Cleavage of theβ-O
-4 ether bond in the model biomass(ChCl:p-
TSA) demonstrated the highest performance in the PPE cleavage.Not reported[100]imidazole:1.5BSA 10FructoseDehydration of fructose to 5-HMFThe 5-HMF yield was 90.1% at 100 °C in 3 min.1 run[101]ATPPB1:3p
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-TSA 2Vegetable oil deodorizer distillateEsterification of FFA in vegetable oil into glyceridesGlycerolysis reaction reached equilibrium at FFA conversion of 90%. The optimum condition was determined at 160 °C, 5 wt% of DES in 10 min.Not reported[102]ChCl:2oxalic acidCotton fiberProduction of CNCs from cotton fiberThe used DES showed a high recyclability (>85%). 5 runs[103]ChCl:2acetic acidp
-TSA 2Levulinic acid Esterification of levulinic acid to produce ethyl levulinate The most active catalyst: (3ChCl:7p
-TSA) DES. ~100% yield with 5-wt% of the DES at 353 K for 1 h.Not reported[65]ChCl:8formic acidFurfural, xylose and corncobSynthesis of cyclic biofuel intermediatesThe direct conversion of furfural, xylose, and corncob to cyclic biofuel intermediates were as high as 92, 88, and 57%, respectively. Not reported[104]ChCl:2ethylene glycol (CrCl3 had synergistic catalytic effect with ChCl)GlucoseDehydration of glucose to 5-HMFAt 150 °C for 3.64 min, the yield of 5-HMF reached 42%.4 runs[75]ChCl:2lactic acidIsolated lignin fromEucalyptus
tree and a series ofβ-O-
4 lignin model compoundsTheβ-O-
4 bonds in either realistic ligninEucalyptus
Depolymerization of the double enzymatic lignin (DEL) via a novel biorefinery processDES pretreatment in 60–140 °C for 6 h: cleavage of C-O and C-C bonds in the lignin, dehydration, and acylation of hydroxyl groups of lignin, and recondensation of lignin.Not reported[106]ChCl:oxalic acidMoso bamboo
Extraction of phenolic lignin from bamboo by subcritical ethanol catalyzed by DESAt 160 °C, the (ChCl: oxalic acid) DES obtained lignin with high UV-blocking and high phenolic hydroxyl content. Not reported[107]ChCl:oxalic acidp
-TSA 2Softwood thermomechanical pulp (TMP)Lignin-containing cellulose nanocrystalsp
-TsOH 2Cooked and waste vegetable oilsTransesterification of the cooked and waste vegetable oils into biodieselThe catalytic DES enhanced the direct contact between MeOH and oil. The yield of FAME was 99% at 70.5 °C, DES dosage of 24.6 wt%and a molar ratio of 12.5. 5 runs[111]Help
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